土木工程英文文献？土木工程专业的英文论文格式均以美国土木工程师协会出版社发布的标准格式为准。英语论文用激光打印机打印，打印稿为黑白稿，彩色打印件会影响出版效果。版心：a4纸，上、下页边距3.5 cm，左、右页边距均为3.25 mm。那么，土木工程英文文献？一起来了解一下吧。
（4.5 ）
Strength criteria for isotropic rock material
（4.5.1）
Types of strength criterion
A peak strength criterion is a relation between stress components which will permit the peak strengths developed under various stress combinations to be predicted. Similarly, a residual strength criterion may be used to predict residual strengths under varying stress conditions. In the same way, a yield criterion is a relation between stress components which is satisfied at the onset of permanent deformation. Given that effective stresses control the stress-strain behaviour of rocks, strength and yield criteria are best written in effective stress form. However, around most mining excavations, the pore-water will be low, if not zero, and so .For this reason it is common in mining rock mechanics to use total stresses in the majority of cases and to use effective stress criteria only in special circumstance.
The data presented in the preceding sections indicate that the general form of the peak strength criterion should be
（4.8）
This is sometimes written in terms of the shear, and normal stresses, on a particular plane in the specimen:
（4.9）
Because the available data indicate that the intermediate principal stress, has less influence on peak strength than the minor principal stress, all of the criteria used in practice are reduced to the form
(4.10)
4.5.2 Coulomb’s shear strength criterion
In one of the classic paper of rock and of engineering science, Coulomb(1977) postulated that the shear strengths of rock and of soil are made up of two part – a constant cohesion and a normal stress-dependent frictional component. (Actually, Coulomb presented his ideas and calculations in terms of forces; the differential concept of stress that we use today was not introduced until the 1820s.) Thus, the shear strength that can be developed on a plane such as ab in figure 4.22 is
（4.11）
Where c=cohesion and Ф= angle of internal friction.
Applying the stress transformation equation to the case shown in figure 4.22 givesAnd
Substitution forand s = τ in equation 4.11 and rearranging gives the limiting stress condition on any plane defined by β as
（4.12）
There will be a critical plane on which the available shear strength will be first reaches as б1 is increased. The Mohr circle construction of Figure 4023a given the orientation of this critical plane as
（4.13）
This result may also be obtained by putting d(s-τ)/dβ = 0
For the critical plane, sin2β = cosФ, cos2β = -sinФ, and equation 4.12 reduces to
（4.14）
This linear relation betweenand the peak value of is shown in Figure 4.23b. Note that the slope of this envelope is related to Ф by the equation
（4.15）
And that the uniaxial compressive strength is related to c and Ф by
（4.16）
If the Coulomb shown in Figure 4.23b is extrapolated to = 0, it will intersect the axis at an apparent value of uniaxial strength of the material given by
（4.17）
The measurement of the uniaxial tensile strength of rock is fraught with difficulty. However, when it is satisfactorily measured, it takes values that are generally lower than those predicted value of uniaxial tensile stress, =0.
Although it is widely used, Coulomb’s criterion is not a particularly satisfactory peak strength criterion for rock material. The reasons for this are:
(a) It implies that a major shear fracture exist at peak strength. Observations such as those made by Wawersik and Fairhurst(1970) show that is not always the case.
(b) It implies a direction of shear failure which does not always agree with experimental observations.
(c) Experimental peak strength envelopes are generally non-linear. They can be considered linear only over limited ranges of or.
For these reasons, other peak strength criteria are preferred for intact rock. However, the Coulomb criterion can provide a good representation of residual strength conditions, and more particularly, of the shear strength of discontinuities in rock (section 4.7).
4.5.3 Griffith crack theory
In another of the classic papers of engineering science, Griffith (1921) postulated that fracture of brittle materials, such as steel and glass, is initial at tensile stress concentrations at the tips of minute, thin cracks (now referred to as Griffith based his determination of the conditions under which a crack would extend on his energy instability concept:
A crack will extend only when the total potential energy of the system of applied forces and material decreases or remains constant with an increase in crack length.
ROCK STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY
For the case in which the potential energy of the applied forces is taken to be constant throughout, the criterion for crack extension may be written
(4.19)
Where c is a crack length parameter, We is the elastic energy stored around the crack and Wd is the surface energy of the crack surfaces.
Griffith (1921) applied this theory to the extension of an elliptical crack of initial length 2c that is perpendicular to the direction of loading of a plate of unit thickness subjected to a uniaxial tensile stress, б. He found that the crack will extend when
（4.20）
Where α is the surface energy per unit area of the crack surfaces (associated with the rupturing of atomic bonds when the crack is formed), and E is the Young’s modulus of the uncracked material.
It is important to note that it is the surface energy, α, which is the fundamental material property involved here. Experimental studies show that, for rock, a preexisting crack does not extend as a single pair of crack surface, but a fracture zone containing large numbers of very small cracks develops ahead of the propagating crack 9FIGURE 4.25). In this case, it is preferable to treat α as an apparent surface energy to distinguish it from the surface energy which may have a significantly smaller value.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to correlate the results of different types of direct and indirect tensile test on rock using the average tensile stress in the fracture zone as the basic material property. For this reason, measurement of the ‘tensile strength’ of rock has not been discussed in this chapter. However, Hardy(1973) was to obtain good correlation between the results of a rang of tests involving tensile fracture when the apparent surface energy was used as the unifying material property.
Griffith (1924) extended his theory to the case of applied compressive stresses. Neglecting the influence of friction on the cracks which will close under compression, and assuming the elliptical crack will propagate from the points of maximum tensile stress concentration (P IN Figure 4.26), Griffith obtained the following criterion for crack extension in plane compression:
（4.20）
Where is the uniaxial tensile strength of the uncracked material (a positive number).
This criterion can also be expressed in terms of the shear stress, τ , and the normal stress,acting on the plane containing the major axis of the crack:
（4.21）
The envelopes given by equations 4.20. and 4.21 are shown in Figure 4.27. Note that this theory predicts that the uniaxial compressive compressive stress at crack extension will always be eight times the uniaxial tensile strength.
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.
History of civil engineering
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.
土木工程是一门学科，专业工程的设计，施工和维护自然的物理和环境建设，包括桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物的工程协议。
土木工程专业的英文论文格式
导语：土木工程专业的英文的论文格式包括哪些内容呢?土木工程是建造各类工程设施的科学技术的统称。下面是我分享的土木工程专业的英文的论文格式，欢迎阅读!
土木工程专业的英文论文格式均以美国土木工程师协会出版社发布的标准格式为准。
英语论文用激光打印机打印，打印稿为黑白稿，彩色打印件会影响出版效果。
版心：a4纸，上、下页边距3.5 cm，左、右页边距均为3.25 mm。论文内容宽不得超过14.5cm， 长不得超过22.5cm。
字体和字号：正文，标题，作者联络信息和图表中的文字均为times new roman 12号字。可以跟据需要使用同类字体中的粗体，斜体。
行距：单倍行距。
页码： 论文正文和文后所附图例都需添加页码。页码为阿拉伯数字，位于页面下方居中。
文体： 文章应语法正确，技术用词准确。标题应该以最简洁的语言概括文章内容。如果标题较长，请采用title: subtitle的形式。
数学公式：文中的数学公式不得手写，必须打印。公式如果在文中多次被引用，应该编号。公式之间，公式和正文之间都应该空一行。
SCC formwork pressure: Influence of steel rebars
Abstract
The formwork pressure exerted by a given Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) depends on its thixotropic behavior, on the casting rate and on the shape of the formwork. It can moreover be expected that, in the case of a formwork containing steel rebars, these should also play a role. In first part, the specific case of a cylindrical formwork containing a single cylindrical steel rebar is studied. In second part, a comparison of the theoretical predictions to the experimental measurements of the pressure drop, after the end of casting SCC, was determined and the proposed model was validated. Finally, an extrapolation is suggested of the proposed method to the case of a rectangular formwork containing a given horizontal section of steel rebars, which could allow the prediction of the formwork pressure during casting.
Keywords: Fresh concrete; Rheology; Workability; Formwork presure; Thixotropy
1. Introduction
In most of the current building codes or technical recommendations [1], [2], [3] and [4], the main parameters affecting formwork pressure during casting are the density of concrete, the formwork dimensions, the pouring rate of concrete, the temperature, and the type of binder.
However, it was recently demonstrated that, in the case of SCC, the thixotropic behaviour of the material played a major role [5] P. Billberg, Form pressure generated by self-compacting concrete, Proceedings of the 3rd International RILEM Symposium on Self-compacting Concrete, RILEM PRO33 Reykjavik, Iceland (2003), pp. 271–280.[5], [6], [7] and [8]. It can be noted that this influence is in fact indirectly taken into account in the above empirical technical recommendations via the effect of temperature and type of the binder, which are both strongly linked to the ability of the material to build up a structure at rest [9], [10] and [11].
During placing, the material indeed behaves as a fluid but, if is cast slowly enough or if at rest, it builds up an internal structure and has the ability to withstand the load from concrete cast above it without increasing the lateral stress against the formwork. It was demonstrated in [7] and [8] that, for a SCC confined in a formwork and only submitted to gravity forces, the lateral stress (also called pressure) at the walls may be less than the hydrostatic pressure as some shear stress τwall is supported by the walls. It was also demonstrated that this shear stress reached the value of the yield stress, which itself increased with time because of thixotropy. Finally, if there is no sliding at the interface between the material and the formwork [8], the yield stress (not less or not more) is fully mobilized at the wall and a fraction of the material weight is supported (vertically) by the formwork. The pressure exerted by the material on the walls is then lower than the value of the hydrostatic pressure.
Based on these results, the model proposed by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] predicts a relative lateral pressure σ′ (i.e. ratio between pressure and hydrostatic pressure) at the bottom of the formwork and at the end of casting equal to:
(1)and a pressure drop Δσ′(t) after casting equal to:
(2)where H is the height of concrete in the formwork in m, Athix the structuration rate in Pa/s [10], R is the casting rate in m/s, e is the width of the formwork in m, g is gravity, t is the time after the end of casting and ρ is the density of the concrete.
As it can be seen from the above, the key point for the pressure decrease is that the shear stress on each vertical boundary of the formwork equals the static yield stress of the material. It can then be expected that, in the case of a formwork containing steel rebars, the stress at the surface of the rebars should also play a role. It is the objective of this paper to start from the model developed by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] and extend it to the case of reinforced formworks. As the steel rebars should have a positive effect on formwork design (i.e. decreasing the formwork pressure), this could allow for a further reduction of the formwork size.
In first part, the specific case of a cylindrical formwork containing a single cylindrical steel rebar is studied. In second part, a comparison of the theoretical predictions to the experimental measurements of the pressure drop, after the end of casting SCC, is determined and the proposed model is validated. Finally, an extrapolation is suggested of the proposed method to the case of a rectangular formwork containing a given horizontal section of steel rebars, which could allow the prediction of the formwork pressure during casting.
2. Influence of a vertical steel bar on the pressure decrease inside a cylindrical formwork
In this paper, SCC is considered as a yield stress material (in first step, thixotropy is neglected), and, for stresses below the yield stress, SCC behaves as an elastic material [7]. In the following, cylindrical coordinates are used with r in the radius direction; the vertical direction z is oriented downwards (see Fig. 1). The top surface (upper limit of the formwork) is the plane z = 0; the formwork walls are at r = R. The bottom of the formwork is located at z = H. An elastic medium of density ρ is confined between the cylindrical formwork and an internal cylindrical steel rebar defined by the boundary (r = rb). For the boundary condition, the Tresca conditions are imposed everywhere at the walls (i.e. it is assumed that the shear stress at the walls is equal to the yield stress τ00 as argued by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] and demonstrated in [8]). In order to compute the mean vertical stress σzz(z) in the formwork, the static equilibrium equation projected on the z axis on an horizontal slice of material confined between two coaxial rigid cylinders can be written:
3.2. Evaluation of the structuration rate of SCC at rest
3.2.1. The vane test
The yield stress of the studied SCC was measured using a concrete rheometer equipped with a vane tool. The vane geometry used in this study consisted of four 10 mm thick blades around a cylindrical shaft of 120 mm diameter. The blade height was 60 mm and the vane diameter was 250 mm. The gap between the rotating tool and the external cylinder was equal to 90 mm which is sufficiently large to avoid any scaling effect due to the size of the gravel (Dmax = 10 mm here).
Tests were performed for four different resting times after mixing on different samples from the same batch. Of course, working with the same batch does not allow for the distinction between the non-reversible evolution of the behavior due to the hydration of the cement particles and the reversible evolution of the behavior due to thixotropy [9] and [10]. It can however be noted that the final age of the studied system (i.e. from the beginning of the mixing step to the last vane test measurement) was of the order of 70 min. Although Jarny et al. [13] have recently shown, using MRI velocimetry, that a period of around 30 min exists, for which irreversible effects have not yet become significant compared to reversible ones, the final age of the system in the present study was over this period. However, no strong stiffening nor softening of the sample was visually spotted nor measured as it will be shown later. Finally, the data analysis proposed by Estellé et al. [14] was used for the yield stress calculation.
3.2.2. The plate test
The plate test appears to be a very convenient method to monitor the apparent yield stress evolution of a thixotropic material with time. It was first developed and used in [8] but more details about its application to other materials than cement can be found in [15].
The device is composed of a plate rigidly attached below a balance. The plate is lowered into a vessel containing the SCC (cf. Fig. 2). The apparent mass of the plate is continuously monitored versus time by recording the balance output with a computer. The balance measurements have an uncertainty of ± 0.01 g. The vessel was made of smooth PVC and was cylindrical with a diameter of 200 mm and 200 mm in height. The plate was placed along the cylinder axis. During the tests, the vessel was filled with material to a height of 200 mm. The plate used was 3 mm thick, 75 mm wide and 100 mm long. It was covered with sand paper with an average roughness of 200 µm. The sand paper was used to avoid any slippage between the material and the plate [8]. The distance between the plate and the vessel walls was large enough compared to the size of the constitutive particles that the material can be considered as homogeneous [16] and [17]. The height H of the immersed portion of the plate was measured before the start of the test. To ensure that all tests start with the suspension in similar condition, vibration was applied (frequency of 50 Hz, amplitude of 5 mm) for 30 s. This step is critical in order to ensure tests reproducibility. Variations between tests performed on the same material in the same experimental conditions were then less than 5%.
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Fig. 2. Schematic of the plate test.
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The plate test analysis is based on the fact that the slight deformation of the cement paste under its own weight allows for the transfer of a part of this weight to the plate by the mobilization of a shear stress on the plate. This shear stress is equal to the maximum value physically acceptable, which is the yield stress (more details were given in [8], [15], [16] and [17]). The variation in apparent yield stress with time can then be calculated from the measured apparent mass evolution of the plate with time using the following relation:
(9)Δτ0(t)=gΔM(t)/2Swhere ΔM(t) is the measured variation in the apparent mass of the plate and S is the immerged surface.
3.2.3. Laboratory cylindrical formworks
Two columns were simultaneously filled with the studied SCC. The columns were made of the same PVC covered with the same sand paper as the plate test. The columns inner diameters were equal to 100 mm. Each column was 1300 mm high. The thickness of the plastic wall was 5.3 mm. A 25 mm diameter steel bar was introduced in the second column (Fig. 3).
国家标准土木工程主要参考文献有哪些
各种规范 国家颁布的。看你土木工程那个方向 就看专业方面的书
工民建
道桥
水利
给排水
地下
谁知道土木工程专业英语的参考文献/
Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers (Handbook) by Jonathan Ricketts, M. Loftin and Frederick Merritt
Civil Engineering Handbook,by W.F.Chen
The Architect's Portable Handbook, by PAT GUTHRIE,McGraw-Hill Company.
这些都是PEC土木工程英语证书考试的辅导用书。应该是最好的了。内容覆盖：钢结构、混凝土结构、砌体结构、地基与基础、建筑材料与施工技术。主要考察土木工程类专业术语的阅读与理解。
本科毕业生土木工程专业参考文献怎么写
参考文献就是你所引用的文字的来源，比如参考《建筑施工手册》2015版 xx编著，谢谢
《43-参考文献格式国家标准GB7714-87》txt
43-参考文献格式国家标准GB7714-87 txt附件已上传到，点选免费：
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参考文献格式国家标准(zt) 中华人民共和国国家标准 UDC 025.32 GB 7714-87 文后参考文献着录规则 Descriptive rules for bibliographic references 国家标准局 1987 - 05 - 05 批准 1988 - 01 - 01 实施 l 引言 1.1 本标准规定了各型别出版物中的文后参考文献的着录专案、着录顺序、着录用的符号 、各个着录专案的着录方法以及参考文献标注法。
以上就是土木工程英文文献的全部内容，EI：《工程索引》（The Engineering Index，简称EI）创刊于1884年，是美国工程信息公司（Engineering information Inc.）出版的著名工程技术类综合性检索。EI每月出版1期。
